Witch Hunts in Early Modern Europe: A Gendered Story

Between the 15th and 18th centuries, Europe was swept up in a wave of witch hunts. But these weren’t just about superstition or fear of the devil, they were also about control. Mostly, women were the targets. Men did get accused sometimes, but by far, most of those accused and executed were women.

That wasn’t random.

To get why, we need to understand how ideas about gender shaped everything, from laws to religion.

Why Gender Matters When We Look Back

History isn’t just about dates and events; it’s about the people and the rules that shaped their lives. In the same sense, gender isn’t just about whether someone is male or female because it represents expectations and power. In early modern Europe, this system was built to keep men in charge and women in their “place.” When we look at witch hunts through this lens, it’s clear they were less about finding real witches and more about enforcing strict gender roles. Women were seen as emotional, weak, and more easily influenced by evil forces. So, accusing women of witchcraft was a way to punish those who stepped outside what society expected from them.

What Women Were “Supposed” to Be Like

Back then, there were tight rules about how men and women should behave. Major changes like the Renaissance and the Reformation actually made these rules even stricter, especially for women. Religious leaders pushed an ideal woman who was pure, obedient, and silent; basically, someone who stayed at home and listened to men.

These ideas didn’t stay in Europe. When European countries began colonizing other parts of the world, they brought these gender rules with them. Women in colonies were expected to show “civilized” behavior, and crossing cultural or racial lines, especially in relationships, was harshly judged. Missionaries even used gender roles as a way to control colonized people. So, these gender norms weren’t just European problems; they became global tools to maintain power.

Religion and Laws That Targeted Women

The legal and religious systems didn’t just reflect society’s ideas about women but actively created and enforced them. Women were often viewed through a religious lens that made them easy targets for witchcraft accusations. Take the story of Eve from the Bible: she was seen as the reason women were weak and likely to follow the devil. This belief showed up everywhere, from sermons to courtrooms.

About 84% of those executed for witchcraft in Europe were women. That’s a staggering number. In places like Denmark-Norway, laws focused on people supposedly making pacts with the devil, which mostly meant women were accused. Even roles traditionally held by women, like midwives or healers, came under suspicion. In Sicily, for instance, women involved in folk rituals called “donne de fora” were accused of satanic practices. What began as local customs got twisted into dark crimes.

Why Women’s Jobs Put Them at Risk

Women’s work also made them vulnerable. They usually held low-paid, risky jobs like midwifery or caregiving roles connected to birth, death, and illness. These were mysterious and scary parts of life for many people back then. So, when something went wrong — a baby died, a crop failed, or illness struck — people looked for someone to blame, often the woman nearby.
Men working risky jobs like blacksmithing didn’t face the same suspicion. And if a man was accused, it was often because he’d taken on a “woman’s” role, like healing. The high number of women accused can’t be understood without thinking about how gender, work, and fear are mixed together. It wasn’t just what people did; it was who they were allowed to be.

Saints, Witches, and How Culture Shaped Belief

Not all places were the same. In some towns, people worshipped female saints like St. Catherine or St. Margaret, who were seen as symbols of female strength and purity. These places tended to have fewer witch trials. When women were honored as holy figures, communities were less likely to see women as threats.

Regions like Germany and Switzerland experienced intense hunts, while Spain and Italy, with strong traditions of female saint worship, saw fewer executions. This shows how cultural beliefs didn’t just affect what people thought, they shaped real actions and laws. Even so, between 1400 and 1750, about 110,000 people were tried for witchcraft, and half were executed. The vulnerable elderly, widowed, poor women were often the easiest targets.

What About the Men?

Men were accused, too, but far less often. When they were, it usually meant they didn’t fit the era’s idea of a “traditional man.” For example, Thomas Harvey, a cloth merchant in Rutland, was accused of working with the devil. He was eventually cleared but spent time in jail, causing hardship for his family. Men accused of witchcraft were often old, disabled, or mentally ill. Basically, people seen as weak or different.

Even famous male witches were portrayed as being under a woman’s influence or lacking strength. Calling a man a witch was almost like saying he wasn’t truly masculine. These cases didn’t undermine the stereotype of witches as women; they reinforced it.

Witch Hunts, Sexuality, and Colonialism

Fear of witches was also about controlling sexuality. Women who didn’t fit sexual norms — unmarried, widowed, or seen as promiscuous — were often targeted first. Accusations included claims of sexual acts with the devil or using their bodies for harm, reflecting society’s fear of female sexuality. These sexual fears are mixed with gender power. Labeling female sexuality as dangerous gave a reason to control and punish women who didn’t behave “properly.” Witch trials became a tool to enforce those ideas.

When Europeans colonized other lands, they brought these norms with them. Indigenous spiritual practices were called witchcraft, especially when practiced by women of color who served as healers or spiritual leaders. These accusations helped erase local cultures and reinforced European ideas about race and gender. Colonial trials weren’t just copies of European ones. They targeted people whose race, religion, or customs clashed with European ideas. Here, gender, race, and sexuality all combined to decide who was dangerous.

Witch hunts were never only about superstition; they were about who held power, whether in Europe or overseas.

References

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